In Need Of Precise Electrochemical Analysis? Try Differential Pulse Voltammetry

Precise electrochemical analysis requires precise techniques. And from all the voltammetric techniques, Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV) is the most sentsitive and capable of uncovering the hidden secrets of your electrochemical system.

Want to know more? Join us on this journey to discover the potential and significance of DPV.

What is Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV)?

Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV), also known as Differential Pulse Polarography, is a powerful electroanalytical technique used to investigate and quantify electrochemical reactions that combines potential pulses and a linear potential ramp.

Applications of Differential Pulse Voltammetry

In electrochemistry, DPV is well suited for applications where extremely low concentrations of chemicals need to be studied or detected. Therefore, it is commonly used in sensing applications in a variety of industries such as healthcare, food, or environmental analysis.

By leveraging the unique characteristics of DPV, researchers can uncover hidden information and gain deeper insights into their electrochemical systems. In the following sections, we will explore the waveform and operation of DPV, its interpretation, and the parameters that influence its results.

The Excitation Waveform in Differential Pulse Voltammetry

At the core of differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) lies the unique excitation waveform that sets it apart from the other voltammetric techniques. Unlike the continuous waveform used in techniques such as cyclic voltammetry, or the square waveform used in square wave voltammetry, DPV employs a series of discrete, short and unidirectional pulses. These pulses are superimposed onto a baseline potential ramp, creating a distinct excitation pattern.

This unique excitation waveform can be tuned by modifying the amplitude potential step of the pulse amplitude (E_pulse), as well as its duration before returning to the baseline level. Thanks to these settings, the technique can be customized to each application.

Principle and Operation of Differential Pulse Voltammetry

As the name suggests, DPV is based on a differential measurement. During the experiment, the current is sampled at 2 specific timepoints:

• Just before the pulse
• At the end of the pulse

These two sampling timepoints allow the recording of the background or charging current just before the pulse, and the Faradic or redox current at the end of the pulse. With these two currents it is possible to subtract the background and enhance the redox current signal. Thus pushing the sensitivity of the technique by enabling the detection of low faradic currents that would have been otherwise hidden by the background charging current. For this reason, DPV is ideally suited for the detection and quantification of analytes.

Components of a Typical Differential Pulse Voltammetry Plot

A typical DPV plot displays the current response as a function of the applied potential. The resulting curves consist of a series of peaks on an ideally flat background signal that would resemble those obtained with optical techniques such as Raman Spectroscopy.

The top 2 key components of a DPV plot to look for are peak potentials and peak currents:

• Peak potentials represent the standard electrode potential at which the electrochemical reaction occurs.
• Peak currents reflects the amount of redox molecules being oxidized or reduced and, upon calibration, can be linked to the concentration of these species.

These features can provide valuable information about the electrochemical reactions occurring at the working electrode and quantitatively and qualitatively determine what is present in the electrochemical system.

Analyzing Peak Potentials and Currents

In Differential Pulse Voltammetry, peak potentials are an important feature to determine what is present in the sample in a selective and qualitative manner. As we said previously, the potential of the peak in a DPV plot represents the standard electrode potential. These potentials are specific to certain chemicals and can be used for identification. While in some cases a variety of analytes can display similar standard electrode potentials, in most practical applications minimal overlap will be experienced. For this reason, DPV can be used to identify and quantify analyte mixtures, such as heavy metals in water for environmental analysis.

Peak Currents are used to determine the concentrations of redox active analytes and are highly dependent on the settings of the measurement. Therefore, it is important to maintain the settings once an assay has been developed.

Finally, the overall shape of the curve can reveal additional information. For example, when peaks become broad or distorted, this may indicate that there are adsorption processes, complex reactions (such as two-electrode oxidation) or the presence of a secondary redox active compound overlapping the target analyte.

Differences between Differential Pulse Voltammetry and Square Wave Voltammetry

Both differential pulse voltammetry and square wave voltammetry (SWV) are widely used voltammetric techniques, but they differ in their waveform and operational characteristics.

In DPV, as mentioned earlier, discrete pulses are superimposed onto a baseline potential, creating a distinctive excitation pattern. On the other hand, SWV utilizes a symmetrical square waveform that consists of a forward and backward pulse at a specific frequency and amplitude.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Differential Pulse Voltammetry over Square Wave Voltammetry

While both techniques can be used to obtain background-free and peak-like voltammetric curves each has its independent advantages.

As we can see from the table above, SWV and DPV have several advantages in common. Especially when comparing DPV with the differential SWV curves.

In fact, the main difference in performance between the two techniques when developing assays is the following:

SWV is faster, but less sensitive, whereas DPV is more sensitive but slower.

Therefore, when selecting between these two techniques it will always be a tradeoff between sensitivity and speed.

Importance of Pretreatment in Differential Pulse Voltammetry Experiments

Before performing a differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) experiment, proper pretreatment of the working electrode and the sample is crucial.

Often, pretreatment is regarded as the proper cleaning of the electrode surface. This can involve cycling in acidic media like sulphuric acid, or polishing when working with re-usable disk electrodes.

But pretreatment goes beyond cleaning.

For the best results, the working electrode needs to be properly conditioned. “Conditioning” relates to the potentials and times applied to the working electrode before a voltammogram is recorded and is of utmost importance for optimal results.

Thanks to the conditioning, variations in the working electrode surface state can be minimized by allowing it to stabilize at pre-set potentials. This not only improves reproducibility, but also appearance of the overall voltammogram, reducing unsightly drifts at the beginning of the scans.

Moreover, during the pretreatment, a deposition step can also be applied. This serves as a preconcentration step for the analyte and is commonly used in the detection of, for example, metals in water. This pretreatment involves utilizing a specific potential to drive certain analytes to the surface of the electrode and often deposit them, so that more sensitive and accurate results can be achieved.

Experimental Parameter Settings in Differential Pulse Voltammetry

The results from Differential Pulse Voltammetry can be improved by adjusting its various experimental parameters. This way, the technique can be tuned to fit the specific analytical requirements of different assays. The choice of these parameters significantly impacts the obtained voltammograms and the sensitivity of the measurements.

There are four critical parameters in Differential Pulse Voltammetry that significantly impact the voltammograms and the sensitivity of the resulting measurements. By understanding the Effects of each of these parameters and adjusting them accordingly, the overall performance of DPV can be tuned to the specific analytical needs.

Pulse Amplitude (V)

This parameter determines the potential difference between the baseline and the pulse amplitude.

It affects the magnitude of the current response, the background level and peak widths. As a result, it has a direct influence over the sensitivity of the technique.

In general terms, small magnitudes lead to small background signals, while larger amplitudes lead to overall higher currents and better signal-to-noise-ratios. However, if the selected pulse amplitude is too large, then peaks start to broaden and ultimately the position shifts from its expected value limiting the co-detection of multiple analytes and the qualitative identification capability of the technique.

Pulse Width (s)

This parameter controls the duration of each pulse.

This parameter also affects the peack current and peak width, but has little effect on the background signal.

In general, longer pulse times lead to narrower peaks. Thus, this parameter may help improve co-detection of multiple analytes. However, it comes at the cost of longer test times.

Scan Rate (mV/s):

The scan rate determines the speed at which the potential is swept.

As such, it affects the peak separation and the overall shape of the voltammogram, mainly resulting in wider peaks as the scan rate increases.

While increasing scan rates helps reduce measurement times, if the peaks become too wide, it makes it more difficult to detect multiple analytes simultaneously. Especially when the peaks of the different analytes are at similar potentials.

Step Potential (V)

The step potential defines the final resolution of the voltammogram. For this reason, this parameter is not normally optimized for R&D applications, as high resolution data is normally preferred (i.e. step potential ~ 1 mV).

However, for field applications this parameter may be tweaked to improve overall data management. By limiting the resolution, more datasets can be collected before running out of memory and faster data transfer speeds can be achieved.

We hope you found this comprehensive guide on differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) useful and informative. We believe that only by understanding the basic principles of DPV, including the excitation waveform and the working principles that differentiate it from other voltametric techniques, it is possible to extract the max value from this powerful electrochemical technique for its application in sensing.

Further reading

If you would like to know more about Differential Pulse Voltammetry, there are a number of scientific materials out there. Some of the most interesting can be found below:

• Electrochemistry for Bioanalysis. Chapter 3 -Voltammetry.
• Differential pulse and square-wave voltammetry as sensitive methods for electroanalysis applications